“All roads lead to Rome.” “Rome was not built in a day.” “When in Rome . . .” How did Rome win such a place in modern popular culture?
Peninsula logical place for emergence of mighty empire
Juts south from Europe far into Mediterranean Sea
Lies almost halfway between eastern, western boundaries of the sea
Protected by mountains, sea
Rich soil, mild climate
Italy’s Geography
Legend: Romulus and Remus, twin brothers raised by she-wolf; founded city 753 BC
Members of Indo-European tribe, Latins, reached Italy 1000s BC; built Rome
City prospered partly from location on Tiber River
Valuable trade routes, easy access to sea
The Founding of Rome
Roman Civilization Develops
Rome first ruled by Latin Kings
The Etruscans
Rome first ruled by Latin Kings
Came under Etruscan rule, 600 BC
Etruscans came from northern Italy
Evidence found at cemeteries indicates Etruscans great metalworkers, jewelers
Etruscan culture heavily influenced by Greeks
Etruscans had great influence on Roman society
Legendary Rome
Romulus founds Rome 753 BCE
A legend
Romulus probably named for Rome
“Rome” may come from a word for “river”
Seven Kings
Tarquinius Superbus deposed
Republic founded 509 BCE
Romulus and Remus
What was the Roman Empire?
There were two periods of Roman government.
Roman Republic
509 BCE-30 BCE
Roman Empire
30 BCE-476 CE
Rome technically had an “empire” under the Roman Republic.
But the term “Roman Empire” refers to the time period, beginning with Augustus, when Rome was ruled by emperors.
The Roman Republic
Rome Expands
Etruscan Rule Ends
Etruscans ruled Rome until about 509 BC
Romans revolted, threw out last of kings, setup new type of government
Republic—elected officials governed state
Plebeians
From beginning, common people, plebeians, challenged patricians for power
Invaders threatened 494 BC; plebeians refused to fight until changes made
Patricians knew they would have no army, expanded plebeian rights
Patricians
In early days, heads of a few aristocratic families, patricians, elected officials
Patrician families controlled all society—politics, religion, economics, military
Maintained power through patronage system
Rome Becomes a Republic
Roman Republic (509-27 BCE)
People elect representatives
Senate – Roman representative body
Made laws
Only citizens get vote!
Law & Citizenship
12 Tables – Roman Law Code
Equal treatment under law (male citizens)
Innocent until proven guilty
Rights & Responsibilities of Citizenship
Laws
450 BC, plebeians forced patricians to have all laws written down
Laws displayed in Roman Forum, central square, on 12 large bronze tablets
Because laws were posted, patrician judges could not make decisions based on own opinions or secret laws
One new law banned marriage between patricians and plebeians
Plebeian Council
After receiving new rights, plebeians formed own assembly, Plebeian Council, to oversee affairs and protect interests
Gained right to elect officials known as tribunes
Tribunes’ job—protect against unjust treatment by patrician officials
Gained right to veto—ban laws that seemed harmful, unjust
Senate: 300 members, advised elected officials, controlled public finances, handled all foreign relations
Popular assemblies: in these all citizens voted on laws, elected officials
Magistrates: governed in name of Senate and people, put laws into practice, acted as priests
Elements of Government
Patricians, plebeians worked out practical constitution
Created new offices of government
Consisted of three parts: Senate, popular assemblies, magistrates
Initially dominated by patricians; all state offices later open to both patricians, plebeians
New Offices and Institutions
Republican Government
Consuls
When last king thrown out, his place taken by two magistrates called consuls
Elected for one year; chief executives, army commanders
Praetors
Primarily judges, could act for consuls if consuls away at war
After terms ended, given military commands, appointed provisional governors
Censors
Next most important after consuls
Recorded wealth, residence of population
Filled vacancies in Senate
Constraints
Government worked well because of system of checks, balances
Each part could impose certain constraints on others
Governing Details
During the days of the Roman Republic, Rome was a thriving and vibrant city. At its heart was the Forum, the public square and site of the most important government buildings and temples.
Nestled between two hills: Palatine, Capitoline
Palatine, where wealthy lived
Capitoline, where grandest temples were
Location
City leaders often found in Forum mingling with common people
Senate met in Forum
Key public addresses made there
Political Center
Forum more than just political center
Popular place for shopping, gossip
Busy shops lined either side of Forum
Public celebrations usually held there
Busy Place
Life in the Republic
Despite bustling nature of city, Romans prided themselves on connection with soil
Farming, landownership the noblest ways to make money
Senators forbidden to participate in any career that did not involve land, could not engage in commerce
Roman tie to land illustrated in legend of early Republic
Romans turned to greatest general, Cincinnatus, to save them from invasion
Cincinnatus plowing fields at the time
Legend of Early Republic
People made Cincinnatus dictator
Office of dictator had nearly unlimited power but could be held for only six months
Cincinnatus defeated enemies and returned to farm
Had no interest in retaining power
Return to Farm
Agrarian Roots
Social Structure
Patricians – Roman Aristocracy
Originally the whole Senate
Plebeians – Roman Commoner
Right to vote, begin gaining gov’t positions
Upper class Romans placed great value on education
Parents taught children at home; wealthy families hired tutors or sent sons to exclusive schools to learn Latin, Greek, law, math, public speaking
Romans adopted much from Greek mythology, also from Egyptians, others
Each family worshipped local household gods, penates
Head of family—paterfamilias, family father—oldest living male
Had extensive powers over other members of family
Within family structure, virtues of simplicity, religious devotion, obedience emphasized
Adoption important in Roman society, a way to ensure family name would be carried on
Women could do little without intervention of male guardian, more freedom in lower classes
Patriarchal Structure
Family
Social Structure
Women
Had no rights legally equal to minor
Practically often have power within home as wives & mothers
Paterfamilias – male head of household, complete control
Legal & practical role as leader
Concrete
Romans developed concrete, with which they built amazing structures that still stand today
Roman bridges still span French, German, Spanish rivers
Roads that connected Rome with provinces still survive today
Added urban plan to every city they conquered; many still seen today
Practical Knowledge
Romans practical, tried to apply knowledge gained from science to planning cities, building water, sewage systems, improving farming
Roman engineers constructed roads, bridges, amphitheaters, public buildings, aqueducts to bring water to cities
Without aqueducts, cities would not have grown as large
The Romans had defeated Carthage, but it did not destroy the city as many citizens had wanted.
Violence between Rome and Carthage broke out in 264 BC. Because the First Punic War was fought mostly at sea, Carthage’s powerful navy dominated the early fighting. Soon, however, the Romans built a navy of their own and were able to defeat Carthage.
Violence soon broke out again
218 BC, Carthaginian general Hannibal led army across Pyrenees, Alps to invade Italy
Hannibal ravaged Italy, defeated every army he faced
Romans needed new strategy
Hannibal
The Punic Wars
Romans decided to take war to Africa
General Publius Cornelius Scipio sailed to Africa, besieged Carthage
Forced Hannibal to sail home
Scipio defeated Hannibal, took Carthage, won Second Punic War
Scipio
War With Carthage
264-241 BCE: Rome wins control of Sicily
238 BCE Rome takes advantage of revolt in Carthage to seize Sardinia
218-201 BCE: Hannibal invades Italy, but Carthage loses Spain and N. Africa to Rome
149-146 BCE: Alarmed by Carthage’s recovery, Rome launches a final war to destroy Carthage
Huge losses of Second Punic War remained in memories of many Romans
Carthage Falls
Huge losses of Second Punic War remained in memories of many Romans
149 BC Rome decided to destroy old enemy once and for all
Declared war on Carthage for third time
After siege of three years, Carthage fell
Romans enslaved entire population, completely destroyed city
They banned any people from living there
Rome Expands After Carthage
Many-Front War
Punic Wars raged in western republic; Rome involved in politics of eastern Mediterranean
Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedonia, Persia, and Egypt fought constantly; Greek city-states feared being conquered
Eventually Romans annexed Greece as province as well
Romans adopted many elements of Greek culture, particularly art
Macedonia, Persia
Romans also borrowed ideas of religion from Greeks, adopted their gods but changed the names
Not all Romans happy with growing Greek influence, thought Rome should remain purely Roman
Influence continued for many years
Greek Culture
The Conquest of Greece
By the mid-100s BC, Rome had no rival anywhere in the Mediterranean world. However, the responsibilities of running their vast holdings stretched the Roman political system to its limits.
Revolution began in political, social institutions
Tensions grew between classes of Roman society
Gracchi brothers tried to resolve tension
Social Unrest
Tribune Tiberius Gracchus noted mistreatment of soldier-farmers
Many reduced to poverty
Tiberius, brother Gaius tried to help soldiers
Soldier-Farmers
Gracchi tried to redistribute public land to farmers
Had public support, but Senate feared Gracchi trying to reduce its power
Senate urged mobs to kill brothers
Public Land
Problems in the Late Republic
The Republic Crumbles
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus try but fail to implement social reforms (land reform)130-122 BCE
Social War 91–88 BCE: Rest of Italy tries to secede from Rome
Civil War 87-81 BCE, followed by purge by Lucius Sulla
Catilina 63-62 BCE: Failed coup
First Triumvirate 60-53 BCE: Caesar, Pompey, Crassus
End of the Republic
When did it end?
49 BCE General Julius Caesar “Crosses the Rubicon” for armed march into Rome
44 BCE Julius elected “dictator for life”
Assassinated month+ later
31 BCE Battle of Actium Octavius’ victory in Civil War over Marc Antony & Cleopatra
27 BCE Senate naming Octavius emperor & becoming Augustus
Most Common
Julius Caesar
Born 100 BCE
Consul 60 BCE
First Triumvirate 60-53 BCE: Caesar, Pompey, Crassus
Conquest of Gaul 58-49 BCE
Attempted invasion of Britain 55 BCE
50 BCE: Caesar-Pompey alliance breaks up
50-45 BCE: Civil War; Caesar wins
44 BCE: Assassinated
The Roman Empire
Sulla paved the way for major changes in Rome’s government. The end of the Republic resulted from the ambitions of a few individuals.
Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey, Licinius Crassus helped bring end to Republic
Caesar, Pompey successful military commanders
Crassus one of wealthiest people in Rome
60 BC, the three took over Roman state, ruled as First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate
Crassus died; Pompey, Caesar fought civil war
Caesar defeated Pompey, took full control of Rome, became dictator for life, 44 BC
Caesar brought many changes to Rome, popular reforms
Senate feared he would destroy Roman Republic, murdered him, Ides of March
End of Triumvirate
Rome Becomes an Empire
Rome Under Caesar
Civil War
Civil war between Octavian, Antony broke out
Octavian defeated Antony and his ally, Egypt’s Queen Cleopatra
Republic effectively dead; new period in Roman history beginning
The Second Triumvirate
Caesar’s murder did not save the Republic
43 BC, Second Triumvirate took power—Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian; loyal officer Marc Antony; high priest Lepidus
Lepidus pushed aside; Antony, Octavian agreed to govern half the empire each, Octavian in west, Antony in East
Images of Rome from movies and stories: Gladiators in combat, temples of marble, soldiers marching to war. What was life really like?
Pax Romana provided prosperity for many
Rich citizens
Had both city, country homes
Homes had conveniences like running water, baths
Wealthy men spent much time in politics
Life for the Rich
Public officials not paid; only wealthy could afford to hold office
Roman politicians worked to perfect public-speaking skills
Ties of marriage, friendship, family alliances as important as common interests for public officials, political groups
Public Life
Life in Imperial Rome
Nearly 1 million Romans lived in crowded three- or four-story apartment buildings
Life for the Poor
Nearly 1 million Romans lived in crowded three- or four-story apartment buildings
Fire a constant threat
Torches used for light
Charcoal used for cooking
To keep poor from rebelling
Free food, public entertainment offered
Two things interested public—bread, circuses
Entertainments
Romans of all classes enjoyed circus, chariot races
Held in Circus Maximus—racetrack could hold 250,000 spectators
Also liked theater, mimes, jugglers, dancers, acrobats, clowns
Public Baths
Popular places for entertainment
Romans well aware of importance of bathing, hygiene for health
Many public baths had steam rooms, meeting rooms, and pools for socializing
Bloody Spectacles
Romans enjoyed spectacles in amphitheaters
Wild animals battled each other and professional fighters
Gladiator contests most popular, performed in Colosseum for 50,000 people
Public Entertainment
Octavian Becomes Augustus
Octavian becomes Caesar after Julius is assassinated.
Octavian was sole ruler of Rome after his forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium
The Senate gave him the name “Augustus,” meaning “most high”
23 BCE – Octavian, now referred to as Augustus, was made consul for life by the Senate
Also made “Princeps,” meaning “first citizen”
Origin of the word “prince”
Also made “Imperator,” meaning “successful general”
Origin of the word “emperor”
Also made “Pontifex Maximus,” or “chief religious leader
Origin of the word “pontiff” (used to describe the pope today)
Also made a tribune
He had the power to call the Senate, veto the Senate’s laws, and make laws himself
Primus inter pares
“First among equals”
Augustus and later emperors tried to maintain the façade that they were elected officials rather than dictators
Being “first among equals” gave the illusion that an emperor was the most prestigious and important member of the Roman Senate, but that each senator was simultaneously equally important
In reality, the Roman emperors ruled with little input from anyone else
Rome Expands
Rome Expands
Rome Expands
New Imperial Government
Augustus head of state more than 40 years, made smooth transition to new imperial government with power divided between him and Senate
Most financial, administrative matters under Augustus’s control
Legacy
Created police force, fire brigades; stockpiled food, water
Began building program; presided over moral, religious reforms
Great period of cultural creativity; great writers like Horace, Ovid, Virgil
Foreign Affairs
Started program to bring peace to west, particularly to Gaul, Spain
Began series of conquests that pushed border eastward to Danube River
Great variety in the quality of those emperors who succeeded Augustus
The office of emperor was initially designed to be hereditary
But from the start, there was confusion as to which family member would inherit the throne
Some emperors proved to be cutthroats, or insane, or both
The military came to play an enormous role in selecting who would become emperor
The Empire at its Peak
Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian (69–79)
Titus (79–81)
Domitian (81–96)
Five Good Emperors
Nerva (96-98)
Trajan (98-117)
Hadrian (117-138)
Antoninus Pius (138-161)
Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
Augustus died AD 14, empire ruled by Caesar’s relatives for 54 years
Julio-Claudian Emperors’ abilities varied widely
Tiberius a good soldier, competent administrator
Caligula, brutal, mentally unstable; appointed favorite horse as consul
AD 68, last of Julio-Claudians, Nero committed suicide
Following Nero’s death, civil wars raged in Rome
Four military leaders claimed throne in turn
Last, Vespasian reestablished order, as did reigns of two sons
Stability returned under Flavians
Flavians
AD 96, new line of emperors established—Good Emperors
Five rulers governed Rome for almost a century
From provinces different than Rome, continued opening Roman imperial society
The Good Emperors
Julio-Claudians and Flavians
Tiberius (14-37 CE)
Stepson of Augustus
Abolished the Assembly
Capable general who extended the frontier in the north
Strengthened the empire
Appeared to dislike ruling, and gradually retired to the island of Capri
Caligula (37 CE-41 CE)
Son of famed military leader Germanicus, the nephew and adopted son of Tiberius
Earned his name “Caligula,” meaning “little boots,” by the Roman army as a child (he was dressed like a soldier)
Two years of good, effective rule, interrupted by a severe illness, and followed by two years of horrible rule
Members of family and perceived enemies
Exiled some, killed some, and forced others to commit suicide
Assassinated in 41 CE by members of the Praetorian Guard
Claudius (41-54 CE)
Brought southern Britannia (what later became Great Britain) under Roman control, as well as several kingdoms in the East
Opened the Senate up to provincials
Became emperor because he was the last adult male of his family (brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula)
Conducted a census of the empire in 48 CE
5,984,072 Roman citizens
Nero (54-68 CE)
Considered a tyrant
Came to power after his mother allegedly poisoned his predecessor, Claudius
Murdered his mother, his stepbrother, and two of his wives
Also killed his teacher, the famous philosopher Seneca
Fire in Rome (64 CE)
Nero was accused of setting the fire, and of fiddling while the city burned
Nero blamed the fire on the new religious group known as “Christians”
Forced to commit suicide
Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE)
Brief period of civil war after the death of Emperor Nero
Four emperors ruled in quick succession
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Illustrated the problems of imperial succession
Vespasian (69-79 CE)
Built the Colosseum in Rome
Place where gladiatorial combats were held
First Jewish Revolt (66-70 CE)
Destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, in the Roman province of Judea
Carried out by Vespasian’s son, Titus
This was the Second Temple (516 BCE-70 CE)
First Temple (built by King Solomon ca. 960 BCE) had been destroyed in 586 BCE when the Babylonians conquered the Jews and embarked on what became known as the Babylonian Captivity
Succeeded by son Titus, then son Domitian
Trajan (98-117 CE)
Born into a non-patrician family in what is now Spain
Massive public works program in Rome
Trajan’s Column, Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Market
Oversaw the expansion of the empire to its greatest extent
Added what are now Romania, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula
Successor Hadrian thought empire too large
Withdrew from almost all eastern additions
Built defensive fortifications to guard against invasions
Built wall 73 miles long in northern Britain
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
Strengthened the empire’s defenses
Hadrian’s Wall separated Roman territory in Britannia from the Picts (in what is roughly now Scotland)
Under Hadrian, the Romans put down the Second Jewish Revolt (Bar Kokhba Revolt), 132-136 CE
Also known as the Second Jewish-Roman War
Led by Simon Bar Kokhba, a man many believed to be the messiah
Jews forced to leave Jerusalem after defeat
Many historians date this as the official start of the Jewish Diaspora
Pax Romana – Roman Peace
Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean region and beyond
Complete control = almost no warfare
• This peace lasted nearly 200 years
• More and more provincials were granted official Roman citizenship
• Big jump in trade, arts, architecture, engineering, etc.
Empire brought uniformity to the cities of the Mediterranean world, which were governed in imitation of Rome.
The period from the beginning of August’s reign in 27 BC until the death of the last of the Good Emperors in AD 180 is often called the Pax Romana—the Roman Peace. This era was characterized by stable government, a strong legal system, widespread trade, and peace.
Roman government strongest unifying force in empire
Aristocracy participated, but emperors made all important decisions
Government
The Pax Romana
Empire divided into provinces ruled by governors appointed from Rome
Provincial government fair, efficient
Government in Rome kept close check on governors
Any citizen could appeal unfair treatment directly to emperor
Provinces
The Beginnings of the End: The Fall of Rome
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)
Stoic philosopher
Wrote book Meditations
Succeeded by his son, Commodus (180-192 CE)
The characters in the Russell Crowe film “Gladiator” are very loosely based on Marcus Aurelius and Commodus
The end of the reign of Marcus Aurelius was the end of the Pax Romana
(27 BCE-180 CE)
Diocletian (284-305 CE)
Rome had a century of chaos following the death of Marcus Aurelius
The “Crisis of the Third Century”
Diocletian was the first emperor in 100 years to properly restore order and end the violence
Absolute ruler who ended all personal liberties
Administration
Increased the bureaucracy for more effective administration
Divided the empire into two administrative realms (east and west) in 285 CE
This was the first step in the creation of what would become two separate empires
Roman (Western) Empire
Byzantine (Eastern) Empire
The crises of the 200s shattered the Roman world. Drastic reforms had to be made if the empire were to survive. Two capable emperors rose to power and gave the empire another two centuries of life.
Diocletian took power, 284
Changed empire into absolute monarchy
Placed self above subjects, ruled with no accountability to anyone
Diocletian
Divided empire in two to improve efficiency
Ruled eastern half himself, appointed co-emperor to rule western provinces
Caesars helped run empire
Divided Empire
Forced society into rigid order
Sons to follow trades, social positions of fathers
Peasants tied to land they farmed
Increased army, full attention to defense
Rigid Order
Attempts at Reform
Imperial economy came under state direction with Diocletian
Economic Reforms
Imperial economy came under state direction with Diocletian
Commercial, manufacturing activities geared toward needs of imperial defense
New tax system raised more money for government, army
Reforms drastic, successful
Saved empire from immediate economic collapse
Constantine (312-337 CE)
Moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium
Renamed the city Constantinople
Today the city is Istanbul (in modern Turkey)
Constantine and Christianity
His mother, Helena, had converted to Christianity
Edict of Milan (313 CE)
Christianity legalized (religious toleration)
Converted to Christianity on his deathbed
Justinian (527-565 CE)
Powerful emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire headquartered at Constantinople
Married Theodora, an intelligent courtesan
Managed to reunite the Eastern and Western empires for a time, but this did not last
Rewrote Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis, or the Justinian Code)
Still the basis for civil law in several countries
Plague of Justinian (541-542 CE)
Bubonic plague severely hurt the Byzantine empire
Emperor Justinian became sick, but recovered
Recovery for the Byzantine empire took hundreds of years
Review Questions
What event marked the end of the Roman Republic?
Explain the meaning of the Latin phrase primus inter pares.
Describe the accomplishments of Augustus.
What was the Pax Romana?
How do Caligula and Nero represent the problems of hereditary succession?
Describe the First and Second Jewish Revolts, including their causes and effects.
The Two Empires
Emperor Diocletian had believed that dividing the empire for administrative purposes would strengthen the empire
He was wrong
Once Constantine set up Constantinople as a capital city, the east/west split deepened
Western (Roman) Empire
Ended officially in 476 CE when the last emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed by a barbarian, Odoacer
Eastern (Byzantine) Empire
Lasted until 1453 when the empire was conquered by the Ottoman Turks
The Roman army’s inability to stop the Huns was one symptom of the weakness that befell the empire after the end of the Pax Romana.
After 180, empire confronted by challenges from outside, growing problems within
When last of Good Emperors died, Rome had no strong leader
Civil wars broke out
Rome under increasing threat of invasions on eastern, western frontiers
Weak Leaders
Emperors increased size of Rome’s army
Demands on financial resources, military caused economic crisis
Empire: military dictatorship
Legions deposed emperors, elevated own leaders to throne
Twenty emperors in 49 years; all but one died violently
Military Dictatorship
The Empire Weakens
About 370 Huns attacked the Ostrogoths, a Germanic people living north of the Black Sea.
Unfortunately, the reforms of Diocletian and Constantine did not solve the overwhelming problems of the empire. During the 300s and 400s, these problems were only worsened by tribal peoples’ increasing pressures on the empire’s frontier.
Germanic tribes lived along, raided Rome’s frontiers for centuries
New peoples moved west from Central Asia, pushed Germanic tribes into empire
Rulers in Rome, Constantinople tried to hold empire together
The Invaders
Invasion and Fall
Late 300s, Huns stormed out of east and sent Germanic tribes fleeing
Imperial defenses in east held, but those in west overwhelmed
Huns formed vast empire among nomadic steppe peoples of Eurasia
Huns
Goths
Assault on Ostrogoths frightened kinsmen, Visigoths
Visigoths fled into Roman Empire, Italy
Visigoths captured and sacked Rome itself, 410
Attila
Leader of Huns, led attack on Gaul
Roman army allied with Visigoths, defeated Huns, 451
Attila next turned on Rome; but Pope Leo I persuaded him to leave Italy
Vandals
Other migrating tribes soon attacked Roman Empire
Infamous for destroying everything in path; Vandals attacked Rome in 450s
Term vandal came to mean “one who causes senseless destruction”
Migrating Tribes
Western Empire
Despite Huns’ withdrawal, Western Empire in shambles
Germanic tribes ruled most of western provinces, including Italy
Ostrogoths overthrew last emperor
Many historians consider this the end of the Western Roman Empire
People of Eastern Empire always thought of selves as Romans
Over time other influences, especially Greek, crept into culture
As a result of these influences, historians refer to the later period of the Eastern Empire by a new name, the Byzantine Empire.
Fall of the West
Why is ancient Rome so important to world history?
Administration of a vast empire
Christianity
Architecture
Engineering
Historians
Jewish Diaspora
Literature
Roman law
Romance languages
Transmission of Greek (Hellenistic) culture
The Romans did not necessarily create and invent everything that they are commonly given credit for. What the Romans were best at was taking something (like the Etruscan arch), adapting it, and putting it to great use (such as in the construction of aqueducts).
Administration of a Vast Empire
Empire included over 100,000,000 people of diverse backgrounds, cultures, and places
Rome learned to adapt its policies on a local level to fit the people of a given area
Citizenship gradually extended to all free men of the empire
Solid, strong bureaucracy that kept things running smoothly the majority of the time
Empire’s administration run by countless proconsuls, procurators, governors, and minor officials
Four prefectures, further divided into dioceses, then into provinces
Strong infrastructure
Facilitated movement by officials, soldiers, traders, travelers, etc.
Rome & Christianity
312 CE Emperor Constantine converts
380 CE Emperor Theodosius makes Christianity official imperial religion
Pentarchy – 5 jurisdictions of Catholic Church w/ patriarch (leader)
Christianity started in the Roman province of Judea
Pax Romana and Roman infrastructure
Early Christians, as citizens of the Roman Empire, could travel freely throughout the empire
There was a significant number of Christians in Rome by 64 CE, the year Nero blamed them for the fire (ca. 30 years after Jesus died)
According to tradition, Paul of Tarsus (St. Paul) used his Roman citizenship to have his criminal trial relocated to Rome from Caesarea (in Judea-Palestine) in the 60s CE
Christianity finally gained acceptance with the Edict of Milan (313 CE) and Constantine’s conversion
Future Roman emperors were Christians
As the Western Roman Empire fell apart, the city became the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church
The Pope used the imperial title “Pontiff”
The Church ended up ruling the city of Rome and surrounding areas
Church used Roman administrative districts, such as dioceses, in its administration
Architecture & Engineering
A large part of Rome’s success was due to the importance Rome placed on building and maintaining the empire’s infrastructure
Aqueducts, bridges, dams, harbors, roads
Public buildings
Amphitheaters (e.g., Colosseum), basilicas (oblong halls), government offices, palaces, public baths, theaters, etc.
Architecture
Basic style was copied from the Greeks
Arch copied from the Etruscans
Dome
Vault
Locations
Many examples still seen throughout southern Europe, northern Africa, Southwest Asia
Dominant advances—round arch and the vault
Ruins
Ruins of buildings inspired generations of architects
Michelangelo, Thomas Jefferson, others
Advances
Arch, vault allowed Romans to construct larger buildings than earlier societies
Have been used for centuries, still seen in many countries
Parallel Lives, comparison of Greek and Roman heroes
Moralia, a collection of essays, etc., on customs and mores
Tacitus (ca. 56-ca. 117 CE)
Germania, about the Germanic tribes of Europe
Annals and Histories, about the emperors of his time
Literature
Playwrights
Plautus and Terence
Mostly a copy of the Greek style
But Greek plays were designed to instruct
Roman plays were designed merely to entertain
Poets
Virgil (70-19 BCE)
Aeneid, epic poem based on Homer’s Iliad
Horace (58-8 BCE)
Odes
Lyric poetry praising an idyllic, simple time in early Roman history
Jewish Diaspora
Judea-Palestina (roughly modern Palestine or Israel) was a Roman province
The Romans put down a series of uprisings
The future Emperor Titus destroyed the Second Temple of Jerusalem and carried its spoils to Rome (70 CE)
After the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 BCE), the Jews were forced to migrate from the area around Jerusalem
Jews were never again a large presence in Israel-Palestine until the 20th century
Roman Religion
Polytheistic pantheon similar to Greek gods
Cities had patron gods & tied to civic rituals & ceremonies
Diverse empire and basically tolerant as long as does not interfere with civic/gov’t role
Roman Law
Started with the Twelve Tables (450 BCE)
Developed over a thousand years
Included decisions of judges, ideas of the Republic and Empire, and rulings of emperors
Public law
Relationship of citizen to state
Private (civil) law
Relationships between people
Peoples law (jus gentium)
Rights of foreigners
Justinian Code (6th century CE)
Encapsulated the previous 1000+ years of Roman law
Still used as the basis of civil law in many parts of Europe
Romance Languages
“Romance” meaning “Roman”
Romance languages developed from Latin
French
Italian
Portuguese
Romanian
Spanish
English
Old English was a Germanic language
William the Conqueror, of Normandy (in France), brought French (a Romance language) to England in 1066
Middle English (the forerunner of the English spoken today) is a mixture of these old Germanic and French languages
About half of modern English can be traced to Latin
Law, medicine, and science
Scientists have traditionally used Latin as a “universal language”
Our scientific names, and most legal and medical terminology, is Latin
Religion
The Catholic Church preserved the Latin language
Catholic masses were said in Latin until the 1960s
Although the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, much of Roman culture continued to influence life for centuries. In fact, we can still see many of the legacies of the great empire today.
Romans less interested in original scientific research than in collecting and organizing information
Science and Engineering
Physician, AD 100s
Wrote volumes summarizing all medical knowledge of his day
Greatest authority in medicine for centuries
Galen
Ptolemy stated knowledge of others as single theory in astronomy
Pliny the Elder wrote about Mount Vesuvius
Other Thinkers
Rome’s Cultural Legacy
Roman Science
The Romans were not great scientists like the Greeks had been
Little original thought
Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE)
Natural History, a collection of all known botanical, geographical, medical, physiological, and zoological information available
But Pliny never verified his information
Galen (131-201 CE)
Summarized all Greek medical knowledge
His work was almost the entire basis for anatomy and physiology studies for centuries to come
In science, as in all else, the Romans were practical
Public health and sanitation were important
Aqueducts brought fresh water and sewers took away dirty water
Hospitals served soldiers (triage), etc.
Transmission of Greek (Hellenistic) Culture
Preserved and transmitted Greek culture to the West
Greek texts, etc., were popular in Rome
When Rome fell, the Catholic Church (monks) continued to preserve and transmit Greek texts and ideas
Review Questions
Who split the empire into two halves, and why?
Explain the relationship between Emperor Constantine and Christianity.
Describe the accomplishments of Emperor Justinian.
When did the Western (Roman) and Eastern (Byzantine) empires officially end, and why?
Explain the economic, military, political, and social reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Name and describe at least three contributions of Roman civilization to world history.
