Reading and Second Language Learners
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| Reading and Second Language Learners
Research Report May 1999
This report prepared by Magda Costantino, Ph.D. The Evergreen Center for Education Improvement Olympia, Washington 98505 With assistance from: Joe St. Charles Susan Tepper Edlamae Baird Acknowledgment to Gary Burris and Lynne Adair For their invaluable assistance with the project This material is available in alternative format by request. Contact Bilingual Education at 360-753-2573, TDD 360-664-3631. The Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction complies with all federal and state rules and regulations and does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability, age or marital status. Table of Contents(click on page number for access) Table of Contents i Introduction 1 Executive Summary 3 Chapter One 7 Language Acquisition and the Language Learner 7 Section One: How Does First Language Develop? 7 Section Two: How Does Second Language Develop? 9 Foundational Theories 9 Creative Construction 9 Error Analysis 10 Interlanguage 11 Linguistic Transfer 12 Implications for Educators 13 Theoretical Models of L2 Acquisition 14 Krashen’s Model 14 Cummins’ Model 15 The Prism Model: Language Acquisition Model for School 16 Social, Linguistic, and Cognitive Processes Model 20 Section Three: Learner Characteristics 20 That Influence Second-Language Acquisition 20 Age 20 Degree of First-Language Development 22 Age of Arrival 22 The Role of Formal Schooling in the First Language 24 Attitude and Motivation 25 Identity and Second-Language Learning 26 Affective Filter Hypothesis 27 Intelligence 28 Second-Language Aptitude 29 Personality 30 Learning Styles 30 Conclusion 32 Chapter Two 33 English-Language Learners and Learning to Read 33 Section One: Challenges English-Language 33 Learners Face in Learning to Read in English 33 Language Proficiency 33 Phonological and Phonemic Awareness 35 Vocabulary 37 Background Knowledge 37 Cultural and Sociopolitical Risk Factors and Challenges 38 Section Two: Learning to Read in English 39 Reading Readiness in English 40 First-Language Reading Instruction 41 First-Language Instructional Support 47 Conclusion 48 Chapter Three 50 School, Program and Classroom Characteristics That Support the Academic Achievement of English-Language Learners 50 Section One: Relative Effectiveness of Program Models 50 National Evaluations 52 Reviews of Smaller-Scale Evaluations 53 Thomas and Collier (1997) 56 Section Two: Characteristics of Effective Schools and Classrooms 60 Study Methodologies 61 Positive Classroom and School-Wide Climates 63 Effective Grouping Strategies 64 Customized Learning Environment 65 Use of Native Languages 66 Instructional Strategies that Enhance Understanding 66 Cognitively Complex, On-Grade-Level Instruction 67 Balanced Curriculum 68 Opportunities for Practice 69 Collaboration Between Home and School 69 Effective Staff Development 70 Conclusion 71 Appendix A 72 Program Models for the Education of 72 English-Language Learners in Washington State 72 Appendix B 75 Model of Program Development in 75 Relation to Language of Instruction 75 The Ideal Case 75 The Gradual Exit Plan's Grounding in Theory and Research 77 Modifications Consistent with Local Contexts 77 Appendix C 79 Reading-Related Programs That Influence the 79 Reading Achievement of English-Language Learners 79 Reading Recovery 79 Success for All 81 Glossary 84 References 90
IntroductionLearning to read is a very complex developmental process that begins at birth. It is also a process that presents many challenges to young learners. For English-language learners (ELLs) who are learning to read in English, the process presents additional challenges because the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of these learners are different from the language and culture embedded in the reading process. Nevertheless, because the ability to read is necessary for social and economic advancement in our society, it is essential that ELLs in U.S. public schools successfully meet these challenges. Hence, it is imperative that educators and policy makers are informed as to what current research suggests are the best methods for helping these ELLs do so. This document was created as a resource for educators and policy makers on this issue, providing a synthesis of the research on teaching and learning to read in English as it relates to students in U.S. public schools who speak little or no English.1 Focusing our attention on children of primary acquisition age,2 this research summary addresses the following questions: What are the prerequisites that children need to meet in order to become proficient readers in English as a second language? If ELLs are experiencing difficulties reading in English, is it a language problem or a reading problem? What are the school, program and classroom characteristics that support the reading development of ELLs? In answering the questions listed above, this document incorporates a substantial portion of the theory on early reading development presented in Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998), an extensive research summary produced by the National Research Council. This document also incorporates much of the information provided in Educating Language Minority Students (August & Hakuta, 1997), a synthesis of research on educational issues pertaining to linguistically diverse students. Also produced by the National Research Council, Educating Language Minority Students served as the foundation for this document's summaries of the research on second-language learning, and the school, program and classroom characteristics that support the reading development of ELLs. This document contains three chapters and three appendices. In Chapter One we discuss the theories and different aspects of the language acquisition process. Classroom practitioners need to create optimal conditions for the second-language acquisition process to take place because proficiency in the English language is the fundamental prerequisite for learning how to read in English. Language is text and text is learning. In this chapter we also discuss the influence of a number of individual learner characteristics on the process of second-language acquisition. In Chapter Two we discuss the primary challenges that ELLs face in learning to read in English and the skills and abilities that these students must develop in order to be successfully in initial English-reading instruction. Also discussed are the most effective ways for educators to support the process that ELLs must undergo in order to learn to read in English and to continue their schooling in academic subject areas. In Chapter Three we summarize the research on the relative effectiveness of various program models for the education of ELLs (e.g., early-exit bilingual education). We also provide an overview of those school- and classroom-level factors that have been shown to be effective in supporting the academic achievement of language minority students. In Appendix A we provide a brief overview of the types of special programs Washington State operates in order to meet the needs of ELLs in the State's public schools. In Appendix B we provide a framework for the development of an effective educational program for ELLs in terms of the language used for instruction. In Appendix C we summarize the published research on the degree to which widely used reading-related programs in Washington State's public schools are effective with ELLs. Return to Table of Contents Download 0.52 Mb. Share with your friends:
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