Nouns are the names we give to people, things, places etc. in order to identify them
Nouns are designators used to refer to objects (referents) of extralinguistic reality.
Nouns are designators used to refer to objects (referents) of extralinguistic reality.
morphological point of view:
morphological point of view:
nouns are characterized by grammatical categories (sometimes called secondary grammatical categories) which are actually certain generalizations which are made about the properties that nouns exhibit.
English nouns exhibit categories of countability
English nouns exhibit categories of countability
number
determination
gender
case
NOUNS
COMMON
COUNT
UNCOUNT/
MASS
ABSTRACT
CONCRETE
ABSTRACT
PROPER
CONCRETE
NOUN CATEGORIES:
GENDER
the most controversial of all noun categories
the most controversial of all noun categories
Introduction of some changes in the existing system of gender categories
Slovak nouns
Slovak nouns
as masculine, feminine or neuter.
In English, nouns are not divided into gender groups equivalent to Slovak ones.
In English, nouns are not divided into gender groups equivalent to Slovak ones.
Gender plays only a minor role in the system of English grammar – the few gender distinctions that are made are manifested in the use of pronouns and in reference to nouns.
In some exceptions, feminine nouns may be unmarked – widow/widower
In some exceptions, feminine nouns may be unmarked – widow/widower
Some nouns do not have a counterpart of the opposite gender (dandy)
Many animal names follow the above classification:
Stallion /mare, he-goat/she-goat
2. dual (superordinate) term
2. dual (superordinate) term
(parent for father/mother)
increasing use of dual nouns (author) with which the gender is indicated only from the pronominal reference.
The author says she is working on another novel.
The reasons for this are claimed to be the elimination of the existing asymmetries in language (e.g. unmarked noun = masculine, marked = feminine)in an effort to fight stereotypes and bias, such as sexism, or the fact that some derived nouns may have acquired unfavorable connotations over time.
Sometimes explicit gender reference with dual nouns is needed (nurse – male nurse)
Sometimes explicit gender reference with dual nouns is needed (nurse – male nurse)
3.Common and collective nouns have both personal and non-personalreference, though not in all contexts.
3.Common and collective nouns have both personal and non-personal reference, though not in all contexts.
In the former case, familiarity or emotional involveness – positive emotional attitude - is decisive (child = she or he not it).
In the former case, familiarity or emotional involveness – positive emotional attitude - is decisive (child = she or he not it).
In the latter, the opposition of individuality (personal reference, plural concord) or collectivity (non-personal reference = singular concord) is at play.
In the latter, the opposition of individuality (personal reference, plural concord) or collectivity (non-personal reference = singular concord) is at play.
The jury have (= they)/ has (=it)returned the verdict of guilty.
5.Common higher animal nouns include those of which no distinction is made
We went to see the Peterson´s horse which they bought only recently.
6. Higher organisms are represented by
6. Higher organisms are represented by
a/ names of countries (geographical units – inanimate, political/social/economic units – personal feminine, in sports – personal collective, in all cases non-personal relative pronoun used)
7. Lower (less familiar) animals as well as inanimate nouns have identical non-personal reference.
7. Lower (less familiar) animals as well as inanimate nouns have identical non-personal reference.
Occasionaly, a gender distinction may be made by means of compounding. (he-goat/she –goat)
A closely related problem to the category of gender is the claim that English is a sexist language because it reinforces existing societal gender stereotypes and is used as a tool of verbal abuse, which may easily lead to physical abuse.
A closely related problem to the category of gender is the claim that English is a sexist language because it reinforces existing societal gender stereotypes and is used as a tool of verbal abuse, which may easily lead to physical abuse.
Among the very often quoted examples belong:
Among the very often quoted examples belong:
- Professor is male, nurse female
- The word man widely used in compound nouns (postman) exclude females
- there is no gender-neutral (non-sexist) 3rd person pronoun , though many suggestions have been made to fill the gap, for example, the proposed words include : co, et, han, heris, herm, hesh, jhe, na person, she/he, (s)he, she or he, sher, shim etc.
- female nouns ending in suffixes –ess, -ette are formed from unmarked male nouns,
- many female nouns have acquired demeaning undertones (lady)
The proponents of non-sexist usage suggest the following solutions:
The proponents of non-sexist usage suggest the following solutions:
replace the word man when it is not meant to include males only with human – humankind,
use male/female only when referring to sex distinctions
in compounds, use woman only to clarify the meaning
when reffering to man as a species, use ancestors, forebears, human society
eliminate the use of discriminatory derivational suffixes – ess
use one instead of exclusive he
Anyone can present their ideas in public.
instead of
Anyone can present his/her ideas in public.
CASE
CASE
the position of the category in English is quite specific, as syntactical relations are realized analytically by word order and prepositions rather than by noun inflections which have been lost in the course of the historical development of English.
the position of the category in English is quite specific, as syntactical relations are realized analytically by word order and prepositions rather than by noun inflections which have been lost in the course of the historical development of English.
As a result, the inventory of ModE inflectional case endings is limited to the ´s genitive the sole survivor from the OE synthetic declensional system of nouns.
As a result, the inventory of ModE inflectional case endings is limited to the ´s genitive the sole survivor from the OE synthetic declensional system of nouns.
Also called possesive case (or Saxon genitive), ´s genitive forms a two-member category with common case, in which the latter is the unmarked member.
Also called possesive case (or Saxon genitive), ´s genitive forms a two-member category with common case, in which the latter is the unmarked member.
As the functions of the ´s genitive are by no means exhausted by that of denoting possession, sometimes the term adnominal case is preferred.
As the functions of the ´s genitive are by no means exhausted by that of denoting possession, sometimes the term adnominal case is preferred.
Besides adnominal inflectional case, of-genitive (a postmodifying of phrase) is also used to signal case distinction in English.
Besides adnominal inflectional case, of-genitive (a postmodifying of phrase) is also used to signal case distinction in English.
As to the form of the ´s genitive, it is homophonic with the regular plural ending –s and pronounced s, z , iz depending on the preceding sound
As to the form of the ´s genitive, it is homophonic with the regular plural ending –s and pronounced s, z , iz depending on the preceding sound
In writing, on singular nouns it is marked by the apostrophe and the suffix (a girl’s dream),
In writing, on singular nouns it is marked by the apostrophe and the suffix (a girl’s dream),
on regular plural nouns only by the apostrophe (zero genitive , students´ essays)
on irregular plurals, it is marked exactly as on regular singular nouns (children’s toys)
Some nouns ending in s, sometimes admit only the apostrophe while retaining ziz or iz pronunciation.
Some nouns ending in s, sometimes admit only the apostrophe while retaining ziz or iz pronunciation.
Charles´ visits abroad, Keats´ books
Mary and Jane´s friends
Mary and Jane´s friends
Mary´s and Jane´s friends
Mary and Jane´s friends (the friends they share)
Mary and Jane´s friends (the friends they share)
Mary´s and Jane´s friends (Mary´s friends and Jane´s friends, not shared)
´s genitive has several features in common with adjective-forming suffixes and thus it is possible to view it as on of them, not as a case ending of the noun.
´s genitive has several features in common with adjective-forming suffixes and thus it is possible to view it as on of them, not as a case ending of the noun.
It always precedes the modified head noun, and it can be attached to the whole phrase - group genitive if the semantic feature applies to both NPs together.
If the feature applies to the NPs individually, the -´s morpheme is used with each
Double genitive:
Double genitive:
combines adnominal and of-genitive
typical construction – a book of Peter´s = one of Peter´s books.
Other possible determiners are demonstratives, and wh- determiners, but not the.
That crazy idea of Peter’s drives me mad. – criticism
Peter’s crazy idea. – used in preference
+The crazy idea of Peter’s.+
In some cases, ´s genitives and postmodifying of-phrases are used indiscriminately
In some cases, ´s genitives and postmodifying of-phrases are used indiscriminately
The ship´s name, the name of the ship
With ´s genitive being more compact and economical.
In most cases though, the two genitives have a separate range of uses:
In most cases though, the two genitives have a separate range of uses:
a/The ´s genitive case(adnominal case) is used only with a subclass of nouns (mainly those denoting humans) and with the other nouns the same meaning is expressed by and of – genitive.
a/The ´s genitive case(adnominal case) is used only with a subclass of nouns (mainly those denoting humans) and with the other nouns the same meaning is expressed by and of – genitive.
b/ register (all registers prefer – of genitives, ´s genitives are most frequent in news writing)
b/ register (all registers prefer – of genitives, ´s genitives are most frequent in news writing)
c/ type of dependent noun
c/ type of dependent noun
´s genitives are used primarily with animate nouns – personal names and proper nouns, higher animal nouns (lion´s den), collective nouns (the jury´s decision)
Some special types of inanimate nouns, esp. those admitting personification (geographical names – Europe´s turbulent times), locative nouns (university´s staff), temporal nouns (this year´s unemployment rate) or set expressions ( a dollar´s worth trinkets)
Of genitives are used primarily with inanimate concrete nouns (the door of the bus)
Of genitives are used primarily with inanimate concrete nouns (the door of the bus)
Abstract impersonal nouns ( a feeling of sadness)
d/semantic relation between the headand the dependent phrase:
d/semantic relation between the headand the dependent phrase:
´s genitive is commonly used as possessive genitive(my family´s savings),subjective genitive (my mother-in-law´s arrival),objective genitive(the dean´s election), genitive oforigin (senator´s fault), descriptive genitive(a winter´s tale),a genitive of measure (a few minute´s walk)
